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The incidence of recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis (RVVC) is extremely high. RVVC is likely to have a greater impact on patients. The aim of the study was to explore the risk factors of recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis (RVVC) in the tropical coastal area. In this case-control study, a questionnaire survey was conducted in patients with VVC in the Sanya area from July 2014 to December 2016. The data included demographic characteristics, host factors, and behavioural characteristics. According to the maximum number of symptomatic episodes per year, the participants were classified into a non-recurrent VVC (NRVVC; < 4 episodes/year, including the current one) group or a RVVC group (≥ 4 episodes/year, including the current one). Crude odds ratios were calculated for potential risk factors and were adjusted using logistic regression. All vaginal secretions of patients with RVVC were cultured. Of the 728 cases of VVC, 69.0% (502/728) were NRVVC, and 31.0% (226/728) were RVVC. Previous antibiotic treatment (adjusted OR: 4.41, p < 0.01), repeat abortion (p < 0.05), and vaginal lavage (adjusted OR: 1.62, p < 0.05) were significantly associated with RVVC. A total of 230 yeasts isolates were obtained from 226 patients. C. albicans were the predominant Candida species (194 strains) in all patients of VVC. Our results demonstrate that in the tropical coastal area, a significant association was found between previous antibiotic treatment and incident RVVC. Host factors may be the most important factors in the occurrence of RVVC.

An investigation into the pathological lesions of Cypermethrin on the testes, accessory sexual and pituitary glands of Yankasa rams was carried out. Sixteen Yankasa rams aged 18 - 30 months and weighing between 21.5 - 46.5kg were used. The 16 rams were divided equally into two groups (A and B) A served as the treatment group while B served as the control. Group (A) were given Cypermethrin (3%) at the dose rate of 3mg/kg (0.1ml/kg) body weight, topically. Group (B) rams were given distilled water at the same dose rate and route. These treatments were repeated every two weeks for a period of 12 weeks. The rams were sacrificed at the end of 12 weeks and the following organs (testes, pituitary, vesicular and prostate glands), were collected and weighed, gross pathological lesions were observed and photographs were taken. The samples were kept for histopathology. Results showed that there were no gross pathological lesions found on the testes, pituitary, prostate glands and the seminal vesicles of both groups. The mean weight of the pituitary gland, the prostate glands and the seminal vesicles of the treated and control groups were statistically not significant (P>0.05). No histologic lesions were found on them. The mean testicular weights of the treated (143.81±7.71g) and the control (130.43±0.63g) were significantly different (P<0.05). There was a reduced number of spermatozoa in the lumen of the seminiferous tubules of the treated group. It was concluded that Cypermethrin reduced spermatozoa in the lumen of the seminiferous tubules.

We wish to present our case of the rare Meckel-Gruber syndrome, diagnosed prenatally at 18 weeks’ gestation. Informed consent was obtained from both parents for publishing this case and including photos.

Objective: To evaluate the impact of adding two different doses of dexmedetomidine to local anesthetic mixture on the quality of single injection peribulbar block in vitreoretinal operations Design: A prospective, double-blinded and randomized study. Setting: carried out in operating room of our university hospital. Patients: The study included 120 patients with viteroretinal diseases who were scheduled for vitreoretinal operations during the period from April 2016 to March 2017. Interventions: 120 patients were randomly allocated to three groups of 40 patients each. Group I (the control group) received 5-7 ml mixture of lidocaine 2% and Levobupivacaine 0.5% with 120 IU of hyaluronidase, group II received5- 7 ml mixture of lidocaine 2% and Levobupivacaine 0.5% with 120 IU of hyaluronidase +15 µgdexmedetomidine, and group III received5- 7 ml mixture of lidocaine 2% and Levobupivacaine 0.5% with 120 IU of hyaluronidase + 30 µg dexmedetomidine Measurements: The primary outcome was to evaluate the impact of adding two different doses of dexmedetomidine on the onset of globe anesthesia and akinesia. Secondary outcomes were the duration of globe anesthesia and akinesia, overall patient satisfaction and surgeon satisfaction. Results: The onset of globe anesthesia was significantly shorter in group II and III in comparison with group I. Adding dexmedetomidine to the local anesthetic mixture prolonged the duration of globe analgesia, and this difference was statistically significant in group II and III in comparison with the group I. Conclusion: Adding dexmedetomidine to a mixture of lidocaine 2% and levobupivacaine/hyaluronidase mixture in single injection peribulbar block shortened sensory and motor block onset, extended the analgesia period and the motor block duration with high patient and surgeon satisfaction.

Medical postgraduate trainees are given increasing levels of responsibility during training in the apprenticeship-model of training [1-3]. Responsibility is said to be a key driver of deep learning and understanding [4-7]. Trainees with greater levels of responsibility for decision making have higher levels of motivation to learn compared with trainees who self-assess as having less autonomy [5]. The Royal College of Pathologists (RCPath) indicate that ‘graded responsibility’ is part of training histopathologists and provided a framework for implementation with increasingly complex specimens suitable for reporting by more senior trainees [8,9]. 

Drug addiction is one of the burning problems in the modern society. Annually there is a steady increase in the level of drug abuse. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime publishes “World Drugs Report 2018”, where it was reported that about 275 million people (almost 5.6% of the world population) aged 15-64 used drugs at least once in their lives, and opium production increased by 65% in 2016-2017 [1-3]. Therefore, the question of studying the influence of drugs on the structural organization of organs remains open and relevant [4,5].

Background: Leiomyoma itself is not a rare disease, but it is rarely found intravascularly. Case presentation: A 54-year old female sought medical help after noticing her leg being swelling. A diagnosis of deep vein thrombosis (DVT) was made and antithrombotic treatment was given after her initial imaging exam. Several days later, a contrast CT and sequential pathology revealed the real diagnosis was intravascular leiomyoma. The patient was discharged after a successful surgery. Conclusion: Intravascular leiomyoma should not be confused with DVT.

Deliveries prior to 28 weeks’ gestation (extreme preterm birth) pose a global health concern, according to the World Health Organization (WHO). Extreme preterm birth is associated with several complications in the newborn and management in neonatal intensive care unit would incur high expenses. In parallel, advancements in in vitro fertilization will give an opportunity for women to conceive in cases of ovarian failure. At the same time, health providers also encourage patients to receive more than one embryo simultaneously during an embryo transfer. Here we report a case of a patient in coma condition of triplet pregnancy, post ovum donation with three-embryo transfer. Following stabilization, cranial computed tomography (CCT) was performed. The result showed bleeding in the brainstem and into intraventricular spaces at 25+4 gestation weeks. Furthermore, ICH during pregnancy is considered as a rare case in obstetrical field, especially involving the brainstem. This could lead to life-threatening conditions and serious disability in the future. On the fifth day of hospitalization, she suffered from pneumonia and pulmonary edema. On the eight day (26+5 gestations weeks), an emergency caesarean section was performed due to fully dilated of the cervix with breech presentation of all fetuses. Mother and the children survived with some non-life-threatening disabilities. This is the very first case reported of intracerebral hemorrhage in the brainstem in triplet pregnancy after receiving ovum donation. Heterologous conception could be an iceberg phenomenon of gestational complications among the population. Reproductive tourism could still become greater in the future. 

Background: Pre-eclampsia is a frequent and serious pregnancy complication contributing for the increasing maternal morbi-mortality rates. This study was designed to evaluate the effect of calcium supplementation during pregnancy, on the incidence of pre-eclampsia and eclampsia among primigravid women. Method: In a hospital-based, opened, randomized and controlled clinical trial carried out in the city of Yaounde, 70 women were randomized to either 1.5 g daily calcium supplements (n = 35) or vitamins at the same time (n = 35) from 20 weeks gestation till delivery. Were included all singleton healthy, primigravid women who offered their signed inform consent and were excluded, all women with any chronic condition. Primary outcomes were pre-eclampsia and eclampsia. Results: No significant difference was observed between the two study groups with respect to the baseline characteristics obtained at enrollment. We recorded a sevenfold decrease in the incidence of preeclampsia in the calcium group (RR = 0.26, CI 0.06 – 0.44, p = 0.024). The onset of pre-eclampsia was delayed 3 weeks in the calcium group. Meanwhile the mean diastolic blood pressure at delivery was of no significant difference (p = 0.126), the mean systolic blood pressure at delivery however, presented a significant difference between both groups (p = 0.009). Conclusion: A 1.5 g daily calcium supplementation of healthy normotensive primigravid women during pregnancy seems to be effective in reducing the incidence of pre-eclampsia. 

Aims: Histological diagnostic criteria are used for the assessment of the degree of dysplasia and hence the risk of cancer progression for premalignant lesions. Clonal changes in the form of hyperorthokeratosis and hyperchromasia that are sharply demarcated from adjacent areas are not currently part of the criterion for dysplasia diagnosis. The objective of this study was to determine whether such clonal change should be regarded as a diagnostic feature for dysplasia. The following histological conditions were used to define such change: (1) hyperorthokeratosis; (2) hyperchromatism but no other features of dysplasia; (3) sharp margin demarcation from adjacent area by both the hyperorthokeratosis and hyperchromasia (clonal change), and (4) no prominent rete ridges, marked acanthosis or heavy inflammation. Lesions fitting these criteria were termed orthokeratotic lesions with no dysplasia. Methods: Patients from a population-based longitudinal study with more than 10 years of follow up were analyzed. Of the 214 patients with primary oral premalignant lesions, 194 had mild or moderate dysplasia (dysplasia group) and 20 fit the criteria for orthokeratotic lesions without dysplasia (orthokeratotic with no dysplasia group). The two groups were compared for their cancer risks using clinical (site and toluidine blue), histological (nuclear phenotype score), and molecular criteria (loss of heterozygosity) and by outcome (progression). Results and conclusions: The lesions from orthokeratotic with no dysplasia group showed a similar cancer risk (clinical, histological and molecular risk) and time to progression as the dysplastic lesions. We recommend that the clonal change should be included as a criterion for dysplasia diagnosis

Background: We report our experience with management and treatment of pregnant women who were admitted at our institution for snake envenomation. Methosd: We reviewed the charts and recorded the management, treatment, and outcome of 51 pregnant women admitted to our high-risk obstetric service with a diagnosis of snakebite. Results: One patient experienced spontaneous abortion, 2 had intrauterine fetal death due to placental abruption, 2 delivered malformed babies, 1 had premature birth of twins with low birthweight. There were no maternal deaths. Conclusion: Snake-venom poisoning in pregnancy is a complex medical emergency that involves complications at the site of the bite and may also involve dysfunction of multiple organ systems in both mother and fetus.

Background: Orthoses need to support physiotherapy as well as surgical treatment. Related to patient’s rehabilitative goals and pathological gait pattern, orthotists have to produce an orthoses that using an adjustable ankle joint system with preloaded disc springs can store the energy brought in by the body weight and produce a tuning effect on patient’s gait and sense of balance. The purpose of this study was to establish how a personalized proprioceptive individualized rehabilitative treatment could influence the functional response of different AFOs (Ankle Foot Orthoses) in a cohort of patients affected by neurological gait pattern. Methods: Five patients affected by different neurological gait pattern and volunteered to participate to this study were recruited. The comparative spatio-temporal and functional effect on gait pattern of 3 types of AFOs was investigated under 4 study conditions: 1) without AFO or free-walk (FW); 2) wearing a Codivilla spring, 3) wearing a carbon unjointed AFO (“Toe-Off”); 4) wearing an innovative carbon-kevlar dynamic joint DAFO (DAFONS=Dynamic Ankle Foot Orthoses with Neuroswing). In line with our rehabilitative model, patients underwent to a weekly treatment session, 80 minutes duration per session, for 4 weeks. Evaluation was made before (time T3=time of recruitment) and after our individualized rehabilitative treatment course (time T4=1 month from T3) by using: a. G-Walk sensor (by BTS) spatio-temporal measures in different gait performances; b. clinical/functional outcome measures (Modified Ashworth Scale or MAS for the affected upper and lower limb; Medical Research Council or MRC; orthostatic stability evaluation by using the Berg Balance Scale or BBS). Findings: A comparative analysis of clinical and instrumental data, performed in the pre-defined four investigational conditions, showed: √ a statistical insignificant change of MRC and MAS scales at time T4, with a significance trend outcome observed at the same time by using the Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test √ a statistical significant difference between test duration (sec) by using Toe-Off vs DAFONS and by using Codivilla spring vs Toe-Off √ a statistical significant increase of the stride length on the left side (% cycle length) by using DAFONS compared to Toe-Off for patient P1, P3 and P5 with a parameter decrease by using DAFONS compared to Codivilla spring and Toe-Off use for patient P2 √ a statistical significant correlation between BBS trend and test duration (sec) by using Codivilla spring at time T3 and T4 √ a statistical significant correlation between the BBS trend and the double gait support duration on the right side (% cycle) with number of left step cycles by using DAFONS at time T3 and T4 √ in a comparative post-treatment visual gait analysis a modification of each patient’s static and dynamic postural assessment by using 3 different types of orthoses Interpretation: In line with our study design we noted at the end of the proposed rehabilitative treatment an amelioration of gait quality with the use of DAFONS in all those patients (P1, P3 and P5) who showed a neurocognitive competence with a related functional grade of neurorehabilitative re-learning attitude of the physiological gait pattern and with a compromised perceptive control of gait and core stability. The proprioceptive profile of our rehabilitative program could promote the pro-adaptive and facilitation properties of a personalized gait control, induced by an innovative dynamic ankle foot orthoses with a modulable ankle joint system called Neuroswing. In the daily clinical practice, the personalized integration of a neurorehabilitative program and DAFONS can perform an individualized peripheral neuro-facilitation of gait cycle (peripheral perceptive facilitation), a neurorehabilitative re-learning process of physiological gait pattern (peripheral assisted neuroplasticity facilitation DAFONS induced) and an increase of patient’s motor abilities and quality of life in all daily performances.

Background: The aim of the study was to evaluate radiographic features of systemic sclerosis-associated interstitial lung disease. Patients and methods: 116 patients with systemic sclerosis-associated interstitial lung disease (SSc-ILD) from 2010 to 2019 comprised our retrospective study. All patients were subject to high resolution computed tomography (HRCT). ILD patterns were classified into 7 patterns as IIPs and analyzed with pathology. We chose two staging method and two semi-quantitative score methods to evaluate the HRCT performance and analyzed with pulmonary function tests. Results: Ground-glass opacities were the most common presentation on HRCT, followed by interlobular septal thickening, reticular opacities, intralobular interstitial thickening; honeycombing, traction bronchiectasis and nodules can also be observed. The most common pattern of SSc-ILD was nonspecific interstitial pneumonia (NSIP), secondly was UIP. There was no difference in ILD pattern between HRCT and pathology, and revealed a high congruence. The four HRCT evaluating methods presented in this study all had significant relationships with PETs. Conclusion: The most common pattern of SSc-ILD was nonspecific interstitial pneumonia (NSIP). The ILD patterns of HRCT coincide very well with histology, and will replace pathology as the gold standard for diagnosis and evaluation of SSc-ILD.

Context: Perioperative management of morbidly obese patients undergoing bariatric surgery is challenging. Lacking standardized perioperative protocols, complication rates may be high. This retrospective study aims to quantify the incidence of significant blood pressure decreases on induction of anesthesia and intraoperative hypoxemia, before implementation of a standardized protocol designed for bariatric surgery. Design: Retrospective, observational study. Setting: A 250-bed county hospital in northern Sweden. Subjects: 219 morbidly obese patients (body mass index > 35 kg/m2) who underwent bariatric surgery between 2003 and 2008. Main outcome measures: Incidence of systolic blood pressure (SAP) falls to less than 70% of the preoperative baseline during induction of anesthesia and incidence of perioperative hypoxemia. Results: The incidence of confirmed SAP falls to below 70% of baseline at induction of anesthesia was 56.2% (n = 123/219). This incidence rose with increasing age (p < 0.001) but not with body mass index (BMI). 3.7% (n = 8/219) of cases were marked as difficult intubations. A transient period of hypoxemia was observed in 6.8% (n = 15/219) and was more common with increasing BMI (p = 0.005). Fourteen different drug combinations were used in the study population. Of those administered an induction anesthetic drug, 72.6% (n = 159/193) were given an overdose when calculated by lean body weight, but this did not correlate significantly to SAP falls (p = 0.468). Conclusion: The incidence of a significant blood pressure fall upon induction of anesthesia was common. The incidence of airway and ventilation problems were low. Overdosing of anesthetics and excessive variation in applied anesthesia methods were found.

Bacterial vaginosis (BV) is associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes with various treatment options. Objective: To compare the efficacy and effect on pregnancy outcome of Metronidazole and Clindamycin in women with bacterial vaginosis in Port Harcourt, Nigeria. Methodology: Randomized controlled study of 136 pregnant women diagnosed with BV at the University of Port Harcourt Teaching Hospital. A structured proforma was used to obtain socio-demographic characteristics and other relevant data. Treatment was with either oral Metronidazole or oral Clindamycin for seven days. A secondary test and evaluation of the effect on adverse pregnancy outcomes were determined. Data analysis was done using the SPSS statistical package version 22.0 Results: BV prevalence was 23%, with similar cure rates with both medications. The failure rates of clindamycin and metronidazole were 10.4% and 13% respectively (p = 0.639). The mean gestational age at delivery in the metronidazole treated group was 38.67 weeks ± 1.69 compared to 38.68 weeks ± 1.64 in the oral clindamycin group (p = 0.96). Pre-labour rupture of membranes and preterm delivery rates with both medications were similar (p = 0.73; OR 1.3; 95% CI 0.3-4.9) and (p = 0.73; OR 1.3; 95% CI 0.3-4.9) respectively. Conclusion: Both medications have comparable efficacy and similar pregnancy outcomes in the treatment of bacterial vaginosis in low-risk asymptomatic pregnant Nigerian women and thus can be used interchangeably.

The RNA interference (RNAi) technique is a new modality for cancer therapy, and several candidates are being tested clinically. Nanotheranostics is a rapidly growing field combining disease diagnosis and therapy, which ultimately may add in the development of ‘personalized medicine’. Technologies on theranostic nanomedicines has been discussed. We designed and developed bioresponsive and fluorescent hyaluronic acid-iodixanol nanogels (HAI-NGs) for targeted X-ray computed tomography (CT) imaging and chemotherapy of MCF-7 human breast tumors. HAI-NGs were obtained with a small size of ca. 90 nm, bright green fluorescence and high serum stability from hyaluronic acid-cystamine-tetrazole and reductively degradable polyiodixanol-methacrylate via nanoprecipitation and a photo-click crosslinking reaction. This chapter presents an over view of the current status of translating the RNAi cancer therapeutics in the clinic, a brief description of the biological barriers in drug delivery, and the roles of imaging in aspects of administration route, systemic circulation, and cellular barriers for the clinical translation of RNAi cancer therapeutics, and with partial content for discussing the safety concerns. Finally, we focus on imaging-guided delivery of RNAi therapeutics in preclinical development, including the basic principles of different imaging modalities, and their advantages and limitations for biological imaging. With growing number of RNAi therapeutics entering the clinic, various imaging methods will play an important role in facilitating the translation of RNAi cancer therapeutics from bench to bedside.

Introduction: Anal cancer is directly related to the presence of high-grade HPV. Immunocompromised patients have defined conducts, something which is not observed in immunocompetent patients. Objective: To study the anal cytology of patients with high-grade intraepithelial neoplasia (CINII and III) in order to propose a protocol to be followed by the Oncology Gynaecology Service at the Samuel Libânio Clinical Hospital (HCSL). Methods: Clinical, prospective, transversal and single-centered study. Sampling was by convenience within one year. A total of 150 patients were studied. Out of these, 76 were patients with high-grade cervical intraepithelial lesions diagnosed through histopathological examination of the uterine cervix (Study Group) and 74 without high-grade intraepithelial lesions and with cervical cytology negative for neoplasia (Control Group). The following variables were analyzed: age, sexarc, tobacco use, alcohol consumption, STD history (not HPV), menopause, Hormone Replacement Therapy, anal sex practice, parity, number of sexual partners and contraceptive use. Results: There was no significant difference between the number of cases in altered anal cancer oncology in the study group, in comparison with the control group. Conclusion: There were changes in the anal cytology of the study group and these should be evaluated due to the risk of dealing with pre-neoplastic anal lesion. Clinical Trials: NCT03241680.

Background and Purpose: Injuries for the pre-adolescent female Irish Dancer (FID) are not well recognized. The purpose of this case study is to report imaging assisted diagnosis and management of atypical medial and plantar foot pain (MPFP) in an 8-year-old FID. Description: The patient presented with chief complaint of diffuse left MPFP. The patient was initially evaluated by a Physical Therapist for persistent foot pain. The patient experienced minimal pain in non-weightbearing (NWB). Pain intensified in weightbearing (WB) escalating with a heel raise. The patient experienced pain with resistance testing, ankle passive range of motion (PROM) and first metatarsophalangeal joint (MTPJ) PROM. Diffuse tenderness with palpation over the medial column of the left foot was noted. The patient was unable to complete single leg dynamic activity on the left foot. There was suspicion for a metatarsal stress fracture (MSF). Radiographs were ordered and read as negative. The patient was treated with immobilization in a walking boot, WB as tolerated and relative rest including cessation of dance. The patient returned for re-evaluation 2 weeks after reporting no change in symptoms. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) was then ordered. Outcome: Results of the MRI identified 2 stress fractures in the first metatarsal. The treatment plan changed to NWB status with immobilization for an additional 6 weeks. The patient returned to full WB status and participated in all dance activity 15 weeks after the initial presentation to the Physician and 27 weeks after the initial onset of MPFP. Discussion/Conclusion: In this pre-adolescent FID, the presentation of MPFP can be misinterpreted as a soft tissue injury. It is important to consider the diagnosis of first MSF in a pre-adolescent FID to allow appropriate management.

Background: Despite remarkable progress in surgical, cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) and anesthetic tecniques, neurocognitive damage still remains an important cause of postoperative morbidity in cardiac surgery. The aetiology of neurocognitive damage is likely to be multifocal; including macro and microemboli, cerebral hypoperfusion, inflammation and nonpulsatile flow. N-methyl-D-asparticAcid (NMDA) receptors play an important role during neurocognitive damage. Ketamine is a non-competitive antagonist to the phencyclidine site of NMDA receptor for glutamate and directly suppresses proinflammatory cytokine production. The aim of the present study was to evaluate whether ketamine has neuroprotective effects during open-heart surgery through the use of neurocognitive tests. Methods: We considered all patients aged between 58-76 years who were referred to a single cardiothoracic surgical team for elective, primary coronary revascularization. Patients were excluded from the study for the following reasons: a history of neurological, psychiatric, gastrointestinal, hepatic, renal, hematologic and clotting systems disorder and repeat procedures. Undergoing CPB were randomized 2 groups: Group1 (ketamine)(n=25) or Group2 (propofol)(n= Patients 25) In the propofol group, anesthesia was induced with 3mg/kg propofol, 1µg/kg remifentanyl, 0.1mg/kg vecuronium. Remifentanyl 0.5-1μg/kg/min was infused intravenously throughout the whole procedure. In the ketamine group, anesthesia was induced with 1-2mg/kg propofol, 1-2mg ketamin, 0.1mg/kg vecuronium. Ketamin 1mg/kg/hour was infused intravenously. Pressors, inotropic agents and antiarrhythmics were used as needed. The Mini-Mental State Examination(MMSE) was administered the day before surgery and three days later. The change in scores for MMSE was calculated for each patient and all the group. The results were compared statistically with paired simple t-test. Results: The mean age, CBP duration, lowest temperature was not statistically significant (Table1). Peroperative and postoperative blood pressures and pulse rates showed differences between groups. There were no preoperative differences between the groups on any of the mean MMSE score (Table2). The ECG monitoring revealed that most patients remained in sinus rhythm, with no difference between groups. Conclusions: We could not demonstrate that intraoperatively administered ketamine resulted in greater neuroprotective effects compared with propofol. Ketamine in combination with propofol during cardiac surgery is associated with a stable hemodynamic profile. Propofol may reduce the delivery of microemboli to the cerebral circulation by decreasing the cerebral blood flow. Propofol has a direct neuroprotective effect in vitro, although Roach et al. could not demonstrate a protective effect of propofol during open-heart surgery. Propofol enhances the antiinflammatory response to surgery by several mechanisms. This might have masked a neuroprotective effect of ketamine because propofol was administered in both groups in our study.

Background: Dysmenorrhea is menstrual disorder that affects about 40% - 90% of women worldwide, it is associated with oxidative stress. The current treatment of this condition is administration of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, which when frequently used, may affect organs. Objective: Assess the hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity side effects related to dysmenorrhea and its treatment Materials and methods: A survey (questionnaire) was designed and implemented on 689 female students of the University of Dschang. After this, and following the inclusion criteria, 191 blood samples were collected for assay of hepatotoxicity markers (transaminases, albumin), nephrotoxicity indicators (creatinine, urea, total protein) and the inflammation associated indicators. The measurements were performed on fully automated Olympus AU 400 Analyzer, using standard reagent kits. Results: Subjects with untreated dymenorrhea lasting more than five years had a significantly high level (p < 0.05) of ALT (39.47 ± 15.74 IU/L) and AST (44.37 ± 13.74 IU/L). Transaminases levels were significantly associate (p < 0.01) and positively correlate (0.251 for ALT and 0. 223 for AST) with the disease duration. Dysmenorrheic individuals on medication for more than 9 years had significantly higher ALT (25.14 ± 7.85 IU/L) and AST (35.26 ± 0.70 IU/L) levels (p < 0.05) compared to those under treatment for less than 5 years (19.37 ± 8.27 UI/L and 27.68 ± 8.56 UI/L). The use of analgesics, regardless of the duration of treatment, had normal creatinine clearance (107.44 ± 30.86 ml/min), compared to those treated with either anti-inflammatory drugs (71.56 ± 26.44 ml/min), or a combination of analgesics and anti-inflammatory drugs (81.34 ± 31.97 ml/min), which was significantly reduced (p < 0.05). Conclusion: Dysmenorrhea duration, type and duration of treatment potentially expose participants to liver and kidney disorders.